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These warlords claimed to govern in the name of the new republic but often operated independently, turning the nation into a battleground. Some contemporaries likened the period to the Three Kingdoms era—an ancient Chinese story of division and conquest—highlighting the recurrent cycle of chaos and ambition.
Seeds of Reform and Nationalism
At the dawn of the 20th century, China grappled with defeats and humiliations that fueled revolutionary fervor. Although not fully colonized by Western powers, foreign control over key coastal cities and humiliating trade treaties sapped national pride. The 1895 defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War further driven the call for change.