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However, Yuan soon betrayed republican ideals. He consolidated power by demanding personal loyalty from generals and even attempted to reestablish monarchy by declaring himself emperor in 1915—a move that incited widespread unrest. Several provinces declared independence in opposition, and Yuan's popularity plummeted.
Yuan’s bid for empire failed, and he was compelled to abdicate in 1916. His death in June of that year left a power vacuum, ushering in a new era of fragmentation.
The Warlord Clans and Fragmentation
Post-Yuan, control of China fragmented into regional power bases, known as cliques or factions, each led by a warlord. These leaders commanded armies loyal only to themselves and often governed with brutality. Among the most prominent were: