Part 8/14:
Despite official bans, European arms manufacturers continued to supply weapons to warlords. The most commonly used firearms were aged but reliable models like the Mosin-Nagant and Arisaka rifles, along with homemade artillery. Due to financial constraints, armies heavily relied on peasant levies, many of whom defected or turned to crime or opium trade—a lucrative enterprise for many warlords seeking to sustain their armies.
Foreign influence was pervasive. Japan, in particular, sought to extend its dominance over China, providing loans, arms, and advisors—especially to Zhang Zuolin in Manchuria. Italy supported some warlords militarily, reflecting the complex web of foreign interests vying for influence in Chinese affairs.