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The rise of powerful duchies and counties, such as Normandy, Flanders, and Aquitaine, created competing centers of authority. The Capetian dynasty ascended in 987 with Hugh Capet, establishing a relatively stable monarchy. Over time, kings like Philippe Auguste (1180-1223) expanded their domains and centralized authority, culminating in the prestige of Paris as the political and cultural heart of the nation.
The recruitment of armies, development of mercantile towns, and architecture boomed, while conflicts such as the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) pummeled the kingdom. The Hundred Years' War, driven by dynastic disputes and national identity formation, saw figures like Joan of Arc emerge as symbols of French resilience. After decades of conflict, France emerged more unified and confident.