Part 12/15:
Napoleon’s expansion led to conflicts with Britain, Russia, and Austria. His disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 marked the beginning of his decline. After defeat at Leipzig, he abdicated in 1814 and was exiled to Elba. He briefly returned in 1815, only to be defeated at Waterloo and exiled permanently to Saint Helena.
Restorations, Revolutions, and Modern Political Foundations
Post-Napoleon, France oscillated between monarchy, empire, and republic. The July Revolution of 1830 and the upheavals of 1848 introduced constitutional monarchies and republics. The Third Republic, established in 1870 after the defeat of Napoleon III, endured until World War II, laying the groundwork for modern French democracy.