The initial page of Rochester Cathedral Library, MS A.3.5, the Textus Roffensis, which contains the only surviving copy of King Æthelberht of Kent's laws.
The most noticeable feature of the Anglo-Saxon legal system is the apparent prevalence of legislation in the form of law codes. The early Anglo-Saxons were organised in various small kingdoms often corresponding to later shires or counties. The kings of these small kingdoms issued written laws, one of the earliest of which is attributed to Ethelbert, king of Kent, ca.560–616.[194] The Anglo-Saxon law codes follow a pattern found in mainland Europe where other groups of the former Roman Empire encountered government dependent upon written sources of law and hastened to display the claims of their own native traditions by reducing them to writing. These legal systems should not be thought of as operating like modern legislation, rather they are educational and political tools designed to demonstrate standards of good conduct rather than act as criteria for subsequent legal judgment.[195]
Although not themselves sources of law, Anglo-Saxon charters are a most valuable historical source for tracing the actual legal practices of the various Anglo-Saxon communities. A charter was a written document from a king or other authority confirming a grant either of land or some other valuable right. Their prevalence in the Anglo-Saxon state is a sign of sophistication. They were frequently appealed to and relied upon in litigation. Making grants and confirming those made by others was a major way in which Anglo-Saxon kings demonstrated their authority.[196]
The royal council or witan played a central but limited role in the Anglo-Saxon period. The main feature of the system was its high degree of decentralisation. The interference by the king through his granting of charters and the activity of his witan in litigation are exceptions rather than the rule in Anglo-Saxon times.[197] The most important court in the later Anglo-Saxon period was the shire court. Many shires (such as Kent and Sussex) were in the early days of the Anglo-Saxon settlement the centre of small independent kingdoms. As the kings first of Mercia and then of Wessex slowly extended their authority over the whole of England, they left the shire courts with overall responsibility for the administration of law.[198] The shire met in one or more traditional places, earlier in the open air and then later in a moot or meeting hall. The meeting of the shire court was presided over by an officer, the shire reeve or sheriff, whose appointment came in later Anglo-Saxon times into the hands of the king but had in earlier times been elective. The sheriff was not the judge of the court, merely its president. The judges of the court were all those who had the right and duty of attending the court, the suitors. These were originally all free male inhabitants of the neighbourhood, but over time suit of court became an obligation attached to particular holdings of land. The sessions of a shire court resembled more closely those of a modern local administrative body than a modern court. It could and did act judicially, but this was not its prime function. In the shire court, charters and writs would be read out for all to hear.[199]
Below the level of the shire, each county was divided into areas known as hundreds (or wapentakes in the north of England). These were originally groups of families rather than geographical areas. The hundred court was a smaller version of the shire court, presided over by the hundred bailiff, formerly a sheriff's appointment, but over the years many hundreds fell into the private hands of a local large landowner. Little is known about hundred court business, which was likely a mix of the administrative and judicial, but they remained in some areas an important forum for the settlement of local disputes well into the post-Conquest period.[200]
The Anglo-Saxon system put an emphasis upon compromise and arbitration: litigating parties were enjoined to settle their differences if possible. If they persisted in bringing a case for decision before a shire court, then it could be determined there. The suitors of the court would pronounce a judgment which fixed how the case would be decided: legal problems were considered to be too complex and difficult for mere human decision, and so proof or demonstration of the right would depend upon some irrational, non-human criterion. The normal methods of proof were oath-helping or the ordeal.[201] Oath-helping involved the party undergoing proof swearing to the truth of his claim or denial and having that oath reinforced by five or more others, chosen either by the party or by the court. The number of helpers required and the form of their oath differed from place to place and upon the nature of the dispute.[202] If either the party or any of the helpers failed in the oath, either refusing to take it or sometimes even making an error in the required formula, the proof failed and the case was adjudged to the other side. As "wager of law", it remained a way of determining cases in the common law until its abolition in the 19th century.[203]
The ordeal offered an alternative for those unable or unwilling to swear an oath. The two most common methods were the ordeal by hot iron and by cold water. The former consisted in carrying a red-hot iron for five paces: the wound was immediately bound up, and if on unbinding, it was found to be festering, the case was lost. In the ordeal by water, the victim, usually an accused person, was cast bound into water: if he sunk he was innocent, if he floated he was guilty. Although for perhaps understandable reasons, the ordeals became associated with trials in criminal matters. They were in essence tests of the truth of a claim or denial of a party and appropriate for trying any
legal issue. The allocation of a mode of proof and who should bear it was the substance of the shire court's judgment.[201]
Literature
First page of the fire-damaged epic Beowulf
Old English literary works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. The manuscripts use a modified Roman alphabet, but Anglo-Saxon runes or futhorc are used in under 200 inscriptions on objects, sometimes mixed with Roman letters.
This literature is remarkable for being in the vernacular (Old English) in the early medieval period: almost all other written literature in Western Europe was in Latin at this time, but because of Alfred's programme of vernacular literacy, the oral traditions of Anglo-Saxon England ended up being converted into writing and preserved. Much of this preservation can be attributed to the monks of the tenth century, who made – at the very least – the copies of most of the literary manuscripts that still exist. Manuscripts were not common items. They were expensive and hard to make.[204] First, cows or sheep had to be slaughtered and their skins tanned. The leather was then scraped, stretched, and cut into sheets, which were sewn into books. Then inks had to be made from oak galls and other ingredients, and the books had to be hand written by monks using quill pens. Every manuscript is slightly different from another, even if they are copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting and made different errors. Individual scribes can sometimes be identified from their handwriting, and different styles of hand were used in specific scriptoria (centres of manuscript production), so the location of the manuscript production can often be identified.[205]
There are four great poetic codices of Old English poetry (a codex is a book in modern format, as opposed to a scroll): the Junius Manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Nowell Codex or Beowulf Manuscript; most of the well-known lyric poems such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Deor and The Ruin are found in the Exeter Book, while the Vercelli Book has the Dream of the Rood,[206] some of which is also carved on the Ruthwell Cross. The Franks Casket also has carved riddles, a popular form with the Anglo-Saxons. Old English secular poetry is mostly characterized by a somewhat gloomy and introspective cast of mind, and the grim determination found in The Battle of Maldon, recounting an action against the Vikings in 991. This is from a book that was lost in the Cotton Library fire of 1731, but it had been transcribed previously.
Rather than being organized around rhyme, the poetic line in Anglo-Saxon is organised around alliteration, the repetition of stressed sounds; any repeated stressed sound, vowel or consonant, could be used. Anglo-Saxon lines are made up of two half-lines (in old-fashioned scholarship, these are called hemistiches) divided by a breath-pause or caesura. There must be at least one of the alliterating sounds on each side of the caesura.
hreran mid hondum hrimcealde sæ[f]
The line above illustrates the principle: note that there is a natural pause after 'hondum' and that the first stressed syllable after that pause begins with the same sound as a stressed line from the first half-line (the first halfline is called the a-verse and the second is the b-verse).[208]
There is very strong evidence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has deep roots in oral tradition, but keeping with the cultural practices seen elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon culture, there was a blending between tradition and new learning.[209] Thus while all Old English poetry has common features, three strands can be identified: religious poetry, which includes poems about specifically Christian topics, such as the cross and the saints; Heroic or epic poetry, such as Beowulf, which is about heroes, warfare, monsters, and the Germanic past; and poetry about "smaller" topics, including introspective poems (the so-called elegies), "wisdom" poems (which communicate both traditional and Christian wisdom), and riddles. For a long time all Anglo-Saxon poetry was divided into three groups: Cædmonian (the biblical paraphrase poems), heroic, and "Cynewulfian", named after Cynewulf, one of the few named poets in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous works from this period include the epic poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain.[210]
There are about 30,000 surviving lines of Old English poetry and about ten times that much prose, and the majority of both is religious. The prose was influential and obviously very important to the Anglo-Saxons and more important than the poetry to those who came after the Anglo-Saxons. Homilies are sermons, lessons to be given on moral and doctrinal matters, and the two most prolific and respected writers of Anglo-Saxon prose, Ælfric and Wulfstan, were both homilists.[211] Almost all surviving poetry is found in only one manuscript copy, but there are several versions of some prose works, especially the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was apparently promulgated to monasteries by the royal court. Anglo-Saxon clergy also continued to write in Latin, the language of Bede's works, monastic chronicles, and theological writing, although Bede's biographer records that he was familiar with Old English poetry and gives a five line lyric which he either wrote or liked to quote – the sense is unclear.
Symbolism
Symbolism was an essential element in Anglo-Saxon culture. Julian D. Richards suggests that in societies with strong oral traditions, material culture is used to store and pass on information and stand instead of literature in those cultures. This symbolism is less logical than literature and more difficult to read. Anglo-Saxons used symbolism to communicate as well as to aid their thinking about the world. Anglo-Saxons used symbols to differentiate between groups and people, status and role in society.[160]
The visual riddles and ambiguities of early Anglo-Saxon animal art, for example, has been seen as emphasising the protective roles of animals on dress accessories, weapons, armour and horse equipment, and its evocation of pre-Christian mythological themes. However Howard Williams and Ruth Nugent have suggested that the number of artefact categories that have animals or eyes—from pots to combs, buckets to weaponry—was to make artefacts 'see' by impressing and punching circular and lentoid shapes onto them. This symbolism of making the object seems to be more than decoration.[212]
Conventional interpretations of the symbolism of grave goods revolved around religion (equipment for the hereafter), legal concepts (inalienable possessions) and social structure (status display, ostentatious destruction of wealth). There was multiplicity of messages and variability of meanings characterised the deposition of objects in Anglo-Saxon graves. In Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, 47% of male adults and 9% of all juveniles were buried with weapons. The proportion of adult weapon burials is much too high to suggest that they all represent a social elite.[213] The usual assumption is that these are 'warrior burials', and this term is used throughout the archaeological and historical literature. However, a systematic comparison of burials with and without weapons, using archaeological and skeletal data, suggests that this assumption is much too simplistic and even misleading. Anglo-Saxon weapon burial rite involved a complex ritual symbolism: it was multi-dimensional, displaying ethnic affiliation, descent, wealth, élite status, and age groups. This symbol continued until c.700 when it ceased to have the symbolic power that it had before.[214] Heinrich Härke suggests this change was the result of the changing structure of society and especially in ethnicity and assimilation, implying the lowering of ethnic boundaries in the Anglo-Saxon settlement areas of England towards a common culture.[99]
The word bead comes from the Anglo-Saxon words bidden (to pray) and bede (prayer). The vast majority of early Anglo-Saxon female graves contain beads, which are often found in large numbers in the area of the neck and chest. Beads are sometimes found in male burials, with large beads often associated with prestigious weapons. A variety of materials other than glass were available for Anglo-Saxon beads, including amber, rock crystal, amethyst, bone, shells, coral and even metal.[215] These beads are usually considered to have a social or ritual function. Anglo-Saxon glass beads show a wide variety of bead manufacturing techniques, sizes, shapes, colours and decorations. Various studies have been carried out investigating the distribution and chronological change of bead types.[216][217] The crystal beads which appear on bead strings in the pagan Anglo-Saxon period seems to have gone through various changes in meaning in the Christian period, which Gale Owen-Crocker suggests was linked to symbolism of the Virgin Mary, and hence to intercession.[218] John Hines has suggested that the over 2,000 different types of beads found at Lakenheath show that the beads symbolise identity, roles, status and micro cultures within the tribal landscape of the early Anglo-Saxon world.[219]
Symbolism continued to have a hold on the minds of Anglo-Saxon people into the Christian eras. The interiors of churches would have glowed with colour, and the walls of the halls were painted with decorative scenes from the imagination telling stories of monsters and heroes like those in the poem Beowulf. Although nothing much is left of the wall paintings, evidence of their pictorial art is found in Bibles and Psalters, in illuminated manuscripts. The poem The Dream of the Rood is an example how symbolism of trees was fused into Christian symbolism.
Richard North suggests that the sacrifice of the tree was in accordance with pagan virtues and "the image of Christ's death was constructed in this poem with reference to an Anglian ideology of the world tree".[220] North suggests that the author of The Dream of the Rood "uses the language of the myth of Ingui in order to present the Passion to his newly Christianized countrymen as a story from their native tradition".[220] Furthermore, the tree's triumph over death is celebrated by adorning the cross with gold and jewels.
The most distinctive feature of coinage of the first half of the 8th century is its portrayal of animals, to an extent found in no other European coinage of the Early Middle Ages. Some animals, such as lions or peacocks, would have been known in England only through descriptions in texts or through images in manuscripts or on portable objects. The animals were not merely illustrated out of an interest in the natural world. Each was imbued with meanings and acted as a symbol which would have been understood at the time.[221]
Food
The food eaten by Anglo-Saxons was long presumed to differ between elites and commoners. However, a 2022 study by the University of Cambridge found that Anglo-Saxon elites and royalty both ate a primarily vegetarian diet based on cereal grains as did peasants. The discovery came after bioarchaeologist Sam Leggett analysed chemical dietary signatures from the bones of 2,023 people buried in England between the 5th to 11th Centuries and cross referenced the analysis with markers of social status. Rather than elites eating regular banquets with huge quantities of meat, the researchers concluded these were occasional grand feasts hosted by the peasants for their rulers rather than regular occurrences.[222][223]
Legacy
Anglo-Saxon is still used as a term for the original Old English-derived vocabulary within the modern English language, in contrast to vocabulary derived from Old Norse and French. In the 19th century, the term Anglo-Saxon was broadly used in philology, and is sometimes so used at present, though the term 'Old English' is more commonly used for the language.
Throughout the history of Anglo-Saxon studies, different historical narratives about the post Roman people of Britain and Ireland have been used to justify contemporary ideologies. In the early Middle Ages, the views of Geoffrey of Monmouth, best known for Historia Regum Britanniae which helped popularise the legend of King Arthur, produced a personally inspired (and largely fictitious) history that was not challenged for some 500 years.[224] In the Reformation, Christians looking to establish an independent English church reinterpreted Anglo-Saxon Christianity.[citation needed]
During the Victorian era, writers such as Robert Knox, James Anthony Froude, Charles Kingsley and Edward A. Freeman used the term Anglo-Saxon to justify colonialistic imperialism, claiming that Anglo-Saxon heritage was superior to those held by colonised peoples, which justified efforts to "civilise" them.[225][226] Similar racist ideas were advocated in the 19th-century United States by Samuel George Morton and George Fitzhugh.[227] The historian Catherine Hills contends that these views have influenced how versions of early English history are embedded in the sub-conscious of certain people and are "re-emerging in school textbooks and television programmes and still very congenial to some strands of political thinking."[228]
The term Anglo-Saxon is sometimes used to refer to a broader group of peoples descended or associated in some way with the English ethnic group, in ways which go beyond language, and often involve ideas about religion. In contemporary Anglophone cultures outside Britain for example, "Anglo-Saxon" ancestry and culture is sometimes contrasted with Irish ancestry and culture, which was once subject to negative stereotyping and bigotry. "White Anglo-Saxon Protestant" (WASP) is a derogatory term especially popular in the United States that refers chiefly to long-established wealthy families with mostly English, but also sometimes Scottish, Dutch or German ancestors. As such, WASP is not a historical label or a precise ethnological term but rather a reference to contemporary family-based political, financial and cultural power, e.g. The Boston Brahmin.
The term Anglo-Saxon is becoming increasingly controversial among some scholars, especially those in America, for its modern politicised nature and adoption by the far-right. In 2019, the International Society of Anglo-Saxonists changed their name to the International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England, in recognition of this controversy.[229]
The Russian government under Vladimir Putin and Russian state-run media often use "Anglo-Saxon" as a derogatory term referring to English-speaking countries, particularly the United States and United Kingdom.[230][231][232] According to the BBC, the UK and US are especially referred to by the term because they are perceived as "particularly die-hard adversaries of Russia."[233]
See also
Anglo-Celtic
Anglo-Frisian languages
Anglo-Saxon model
Burial in Anglo-Saxon England
Fyrd - Anglo-Saxon military organization
States in Medieval Britain
Timeline of conflict in Anglo-Saxon Britain
Notes
^ From its reference to "Aldfrith, who now reigns peacefully" it must date to between 685 and 704.[31]
^ Oswiu of Northumbria (642–70) only won authority over the southern kingdoms after he defeated Penda at the battle of the Winwæd in 655 and must have lost it again soon after Wulfhere regained control in Mercia in 658.
^ Their names mean, literally, "Stallion" and "Horse"
^ There is much evidence for loosely managed and shifting cultivation and no evidence of "top down" structured landscape planning.
^ York and London both offer examples of this trend.
^ Example from the Wanderer[207]
Citations
^ Higham et al. 2013.
^ Higham & Ryan 2013, pp. 7–19.
^ Williams, Joseph M. (1986). Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-02-934470-5.
^ Higham & Ryan 2013, p. 7.
^ Jump up to: a b Hamerow 2012, p. 166.
^ Jump up to: a b Nicholas Brooks (2003). "English Identity from Bede to the Millenium". The Haskins Society Journal. 14: 35–50.
^ Ellis, Steven G. A View of the Irish Language: Language and History in Ireland from the Middle Ages to the Present.
^ Hills, Catherine. Origins of the English. Duckworth Pub, 2003: 15
^ In the abstract for: Härke, Heinrich. "Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis." Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 1–28.
^ Drinkwater, John F. (2023), "The 'Saxon Shore' Reconsidered", Britannia, 54: 275–303, doi:10.1017/S0068113X23000193
^ Nixon & Rodgers 1994, pp. 137–138.
^ Lanting & van der Plicht 2010, pp. 67, 73 citing XII Panegyrici Latini 8(4).9.3. For a translation and further comments see Nixon & Rodgers 1994, p. 121
^ Halsall 2013, p. 218.
^ Springer 2004, p. 36.
^ Halsall 2013, p. 13.
^ Dewing, H B (1962). Procopius: History of the Wars Books VII and VIII with an English Translation (PDF). Harvard University Press. pp. 252–255. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ Halsall 2013, pp. 13–15, 185–186, 246.
^ Halsall 2013, pp. 194, 203.
^ Halsall 2013, p. 169.
^ Hills, C.; Lucy, S. (2013). Spong Hill IX: Chronology and Synthesis. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. ISBN 978-1-902937-62-5.
^ Giles 1843a:72–73, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk I, Ch 15.
^ Giles 1843b:188–189, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk V, Ch 9.
^ Campbell, James (1986). Essays in Anglo-Saxon history. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 978-0-907628-32-3. OCLC 458534293.
^ Higham, Nicholas (1995). An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings. Manchester University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7190-4424-3.
^ Gretzinger, J; Sayer, D; Justeau, P (2022), "The Anglo-Saxon migration and the formation of the early English gene pool", Nature, 610 (7930): 112–119, Bibcode:2022Natur.610..112G, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05247-2, PMC 9534755, PMID 36131019
^ Jump up to: a b Ward-Perkins, Brian (2000). "Why Did the Anglo-Saxons Not Become More British?". The English Historical Review. 115 (462): 513–533. doi:10.1093/ehr/115.462.513. JSTOR 579665. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
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^ Green, Caitlin (2008). "The British Kingdom of Lindsey". Oxford Research Archive. Oxford University. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
^ Bede, Book III, chapters 3 and 5.
^ Stenton 1971, p. 88.
^ Campbell 1982, pp. 80–81.
^ Colgrave, Earliest Life of Gregory the Great, p. 9.
^ Higham, Nicholas J. The English conquest: Gildas and Britain in the fifth century. Vol. 1. Manchester University Press, 1994.
^ Yorke, Barbara. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge, 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b Keynes, Simon. "England, 700–900." The New Cambridge Medieval History 2 (1995): 18–42.
^ Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge, 2002: p101
^ Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge, 2002: p103
^ Scharer, Anton. "The writing of history at King Alfred's court." Early Medieval Europe 5.2 (1996): 177–206.
^ Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, 2002. p. 101.
^ Yorke, B A E 1985: 'The kingdom of the East Saxons.' Anglo-Saxon England 14, 1–36
^ RYAN, MARTIN J. "The Mercian Supremacies." The Anglo-Saxon World (2013): 179.
^ Drout, Michael DC. Imitating fathers: tradition, inheritance, and the reproduction of culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Diss. Loyola University of Chicago, 1997.
^ Lendinara, Patrizia. "The world of Anglo-Saxon learning." The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature (1991): 264–281.
^ Lapidge, Michael. "The school of Theodore and Hadrian." Anglo-Saxon England 15.1 (1986): 45–72.
^ Drout, M. Anglo-Saxon World (Audio Lectures) Audible.com
^ Dobney, Keith, et al. Farmers, monks and aristocrats: the environmental archaeology of an Anglo-Saxon Estate Centre at Flixborough, North Lincolnshire, UK. Oxbow Books, 2007.
^ Godfrey, John. "The Double Monastery in Early English History." Ampleforth Journal 79 (1974): 19–32.
^ Dumville, David N., Simon Keynes, and Susan Irvine, eds. The Anglo-Saxon chronicle: a collaborative edition. MS E. Vol. 7. Ds Brewer, 2004.
^ Swanton, Michael (1996). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92129-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1965.
^ Bede, Saint. The Ecclesiastical History of the English People: The Greater Chronicle; Bede's Letter to Egbert. Oxford University Press, 1994.
^ Keynes, Simon. "Mercia and Wessex in the ninth century." Mercia. An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe, ed. Michelle P. Brown/Carol Ann Farr (London 2001) (2001): 310–328.
^ Sawyer, Peter Hayes, ed. Illustrated history of the Vikings. Oxford University Press, 2001
^ Coupland, Simon. "The Vikings in Francia and Anglo-Saxon England to 911." The New Cambridge Medieval History 2 (1995): 190–201.
^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle s.a. 893
^ Keynes, Simon, and Michael Lapidge. Alfred the Great. New York:
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Keynes, Simon, and Michael Lapidge. Alfred the Great. New York: Penguin, 1984.
^ Frantzen, Allen J. King Alfred. Woodbridge, CT: Twayne Publishers, 1986
^ Yorke, Barbara. Wessex in the Early Middle Ages. London: Pinter Publishers
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^ Keynes, Simon. "England, 900–1016." New Cambridge Medieval History 3 (1999): 456–484.
^ Jump up to: a b c Keynes, Simon. "Edward, King of the Anglo-Saxons."." Edward the Elder: 899 924 (2001): 40–66.
^ Dumville, David N. Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar: six essays on political, cultural, and ecclesiastical revival. Boydell Press, 1992.
^ Keynes, Simon. King Athelstan's books. University Press, 1985.
^ Hare, Kent G. "Athelstan of England: Christian king and hero." The Heroic Age 7 (2004).
^ Keynes, Simon. "Edgar, King of the English 959–975 New Interpretations." (2008).
^ Jump up to: a b Dumville, David N. "Between Alfred the Great and Edgar the Peacemaker: Æthelstan, First King of England." Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar (1992): 141–171.
^ Regularis concordia Anglicae nationis, ed. T. Symons (CCM 7/3), Siegburg (1984), p.2 (revised edition of Regularis concordia Anglicae nationis monachorum sanctimonialiumque: The Monastic Agreement of the Monks and Nuns of the English Nation, ed. with English trans. T. Symons, London (1953))
^ Jump up to: a b Gretsch, Mechthild. "Myth, Rulership, Church and Charters: Essays in Honour of Nicholas Brooks." The English Historical Review 124.510 (2009): 1136–1138.
^ ASC, pp. 230–251
^ See, e.g., EHD, no. 10 (the poem on the battle of Maldon), nos. 42–6 (law-codes), nos. 117–29 (charters, etc.), nos.230–1 (letters), and no. 240 (Archbishop Wulfstan's Sermo ad Anglos).
^ White, Stephen D. "Timothy Reuter, ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History, 3: C. 900–c. 1024. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xxv." Speculum 77.01 (2002): pp455-485.
^ Dorothy Whitelock, ed. Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, 2. ed., Methuen's Old English Library B. Prose selections (London: Methuen, 1952).
^ Malcolm Godden, "Apocalypse and Invasion in Late Anglo-Saxon England," in From Anglo-Saxon to Early Middle English: Studies Presented to E. G. Stanley, ed. Malcolm Godden, Douglas Gray, and Terry Hoad (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
^ Mary Clayton, "An Edition of Ælfric's Letter to Brother Edward," in Early Medieval English Texts and Interpretations: Studies Presented to Donald G. Scragg, ed. Elaine Treharne and Susan Rosser (Tempe, Arizona: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2002), 280–283.
^ Keynes, S. The Diplomas of King Æthelred "the Unready", 226–228.
^ Treharne, Elaine. Living Through Conquest: The Politics of Early English, 1020–1220. Oxford University Press, 2012.
^ Robin Fleming Kings and lords in Conquest England. Vol. 15. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
^ Mack, Katharin. "Changing thegns: Cnut's conquest and the English aristocracy." Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies (1984): 375–387.
^ Eric John, Orbis Britanniae (Leicester, 1966), p. 61.
^ Jump up to: a b Maddicott, J. R. (2004). "Edward the Confessor's Return to England in 1041". English Historical Review (Oxford University Press) CXIX (482): 650–666.
^ Swanton, Michael (1996). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92129-9
^ Bartlett, Robert (2000). J.M.Roberts (ed.). England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075–1225. London: OUP. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-925101-8.
^ Wood, Michael (2005). In Search of the Dark Ages. London: BBC. pp. 248–249. ISBN 978-0-563-52276-8.
^ Higham & Ryan 2013, pp. 409–410.
^ Daniell, Christopher (2003). From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta: England, 1066–1215. Psychology Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-415-22215-0.
^ Wyatt, David R. (2009). Slaves and Warriors in Medieval Britain and Ireland: 800 - 1200. Brill. p. 385. ISBN 978-90-04-17533-4.
^ Ciggaar, Krijna Nelly (1996). Western Travellers to Constantinople: The West and Byzantium, 962–1204 : Cultural and Political Relations. Brill. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-90-04-10637-6.
^ "Byzantine Armies AD 1118–1461", p.23, Ian Heath, Osprey Publishing, 1995, ISBN 978-1-85532-347-6
^ Thomas, Hugh M. (2008). The Norman Conquest: England After William the Conqueror. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-7425-3840-5.
^ Chibnall, Marjorie (translator), The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis, 6 volumes (Oxford, 1968–1980) (Oxford Medieval Texts), ISBN 978-0-19-820220-2.
^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 'D' s.a. 1069
^ Jack, George B. "Negative adverbs in early Middle English." (1978): 295–309.
^ Jump up to: a b Drout, Michael DC, ed. JRR Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and critical assessment. Routledge, 2006.
^ De Caluwé-Dor, Juliette. "The chronology of the Scandinavian loan-verbs in the Katherine Group." (1979): 680–685.
^ Drout, M. The Modern Scholar: The Anglo-Saxon World [Unabridged] [Audible Audio Edition]
^ "English: language of government". British Library. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Härke, Heinrich. "Changing symbols in a changing society. The Anglo-Saxon weapon burial rite in the seventh century." The Age of Sutton Hoo. The Seventh Century in North-Western Europe, ed. Martin OH Carver (Woodbridge 1992) (1992): 149–165.
^ Yorke 1990, pp. 15–17.
^ Hough 2014, p. 117.
^ Hamerow, Helena. "The earliest Anglo-Saxon kingdoms' in The New Cambridge Medieval History, I, c. 500-c. 700. ed. Paul Fouracre." (2005): 265.
^ Scull, C. (1997),'Urban centres in Pre-Viking England?', in Hines (1997), pp. 269–98
^ Hodges, Richard (1982). Dark Age Economics: the origins of towns and trade A.D. 600–1000. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co.
^ Richards, Naylor; Holas-Clark (2009). "Anglo-Saxon Landscape and Economy: using portable antiquities to study Anglo-Saxon and Viking Age England". Internet Archaeology (25). doi:10.11141/ia.25.2.
^ Yorke 1990, pp. 9 & 18.
^ Yorke 1990, p. 16.
^ Fanning, Steven. "Bede, Imperium, and the bretwaldas." Speculum 66.01 (1991): 1–26.
^ Wood, Mark. "Bernician Transitions: Place-names and Archaeology." Early medieval Northumbria: kingdoms and communities, AD (2011): 450–1100.
^ Campbell, J 1979: Bede's Reges and Principes. Jarrow Lecture
^ Leslie, Kim; Short, Brian (1999). An Historical Atlas of Sussex. Phillimore. ISBN 978-1-86077-112-5.
^ Irvine, Susan, Susan Elizabeth Irvine, and Malcolm Godden, eds. The Old English Boethius: with verse prologues and epilogues associated with King Alfred. Vol. 19. Harvard University Press, 2012.
^ Abels, Richard P (2013-11-26). Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-90041-2.
^ Higham, N.J. "From Tribal Chieftains to Christian Kings." The Anglo-Saxon World (2013): 126.
^ Woodman, David. "Edgar, King of the English 959–975. New Interpretations–Edited by Donald Scragg." Early Medieval Europe 19.1 (2011): 118–120.
^ Chaney, William A. (1970). The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
^ Lethbridge, Gogmagog. The Buried Gods (London, 1957), p. 136.
^ Jennbert, Kristina (2006). The Horse and its role in Icelandic burial practices, mythology, and society. pp. 130–133.
^ Owen-Crocker, Gale R. (2000). The Four Funerals in Beowulf: And the Structure of the Poem. Manchester UP. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7190-5497-6. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Jupp, Peter C.; Gittings, Clare (1999). Death in England: An Illustrated History. Manchester UP. pp. 67, 72. ISBN 978-0-7190-5811-0. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
^ Carver, M. O. H. (1998). Sutton Hoo: Burial Ground of Kings?. U of Pennsylvania P. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-8122-3455-8. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
^ Frantzen, Allen J., and I. I. John Hines, eds. Cædmon's Hymn and Material Culture in the World of Bede: Six Essays. West Virginia University Press, 2007.
^ Keynes, Simon. "The 'Dunstan B'charters." Anglo-Saxon England 23 (1994): 165–193.
^ HE. Bede, Ecdesiastical History of the English People, quoted from the ed. by B. Colgrave and R.A.B. Mynors (Oxford, 1969). ii.12
^ ASC, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in Whitelock 878, Asser c. 55
^ Jump up to: a b Hollister, C.W. 1962: Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions (Oxford)
^ ASC, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in Whitelock 893; also Asser c. 100 for the Organisation of the royal household
^ Brooks, N.P.1971: The Development of Military Obligations in Eighth-and Ninth-century England, in Clemoes, P. and Hughes, K. (ed.), England Before the Conquest (Cambridge) pp. 69–84.
^ Webb, J.F. and Farmer, D.H. 1965: The Age of Bede (Harmondsworth)., pp. 43–4
^ Gillingham, J. 1984: Richard I and the Science of War in the Middle Ages, in J. Holt and J. Gillingham (eds.), War and Government in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge).
^ ASC, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in Whitelock 1979 912, 914, 917
^ Campbell, J. 1981: The Anglo-Saxons (Oxford).
^ Richards, Julian D. (2013-06-01). Viking Age England (Kindle Locations 418–422). The History Press. Kindle Edition.
^ Hamerow, Helena. Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford University Press, 2012.
^ Higham, Nicholas J. An English Empire: Bede, the Britons, and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings. Vol 2 p.244
^ Oosthuizen, Susan. Tradition and Transformation in Anglo-Saxon England: Archaeology, Common Rights and Landscape. Bloomsbury Academic, 2013.
^ O'Brien C (2002) The Early Medieval Shires of Yeavering, Bamburgh and Breamish. Archaeologia Aeliana 5th Series, 30, 53–73.
^ Jump up to: a b Sawyer, Peter. The Wealth of Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford University Press, 2013.
^ Higham, Nicholas J., and Martin J. Ryan, eds. Place-names, Language and the Anglo-Saxon Landscape. Vol. 10. Boydell Press, 2011.
^ Pickles, Thomas. "The Landscape Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Nicholas J. Higham and Martin J. Ryan." The English Historical Review 127.528 (2012): 1184–1186.
^ Hamerow, Helena, David A. Hinton, and Sally Crawford, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology. OUP Oxford, 2011.
^ Klinck, A. L., 'Anglo-Saxon women and the law', Journal of Medieval History 8 (1982), 107–21.
^ Rivers, T. J., 'Widows' rights in Anglo-Saxon law', American Journal of Legal History 19 (1975), 208–15.
^ Fell, Christine E.; Clark, Cecily; Williams, Elizabeth (1984). Women in Anglo-Saxon England. British Museum Publications. ISBN 978-0-7141-8057-1.
^ Leges Henrici Primi
^ Stenton 1971, p. 530.
^ Anglo-Saxon Dictionary edited by Joseph Bosworth, T. Northcote Toller and Alistair Campbell (1972), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-863101-9.
^ Stenton, F. M. "The Thriving of the Anglo-Saxon Ceorl." Preparatory to Anglo-Saxon England (1970): 383–93.
^ "Early Medieval Architecture". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
^ "When did the Anglo-Saxons come to Britain?". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
^ Turner, H. L. (1970), Town Defences in England and Wales: An Architectural and Documentary Study A. D. 900–1500 (London: John Baker)
^ Higham, R. and Barker, P. (1992), Timber Castles (London: B. T. Batsford):193
^ Hamerow, Helena (2012-07-05). Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-920325-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilkinson, David John, and Alan McWhirr. Cirencester Anglo-Saxon Church and Medieval Abbey: Excavations Directed by JS Wacher (1964), AD McWhirr (1965) and PDC Brown (1965–6). Cotswold Archaeological Trust, 1998.
^ Whitehead, Matthew Alexander, and J. D. Whitehead. The Saxon Church, Escomb. 1979.
^ Conant, Kenneth John. Carolingian and Romanesque architecture, 800 to 1200. Vol. 13. Yale University Press, 1993.
^ Suzuki, Seiichi. The Quoit Brooch Style and Anglo-Saxon Settlement: A Casting and Recasting of Cultural Identity Symbols. Boydell & Brewer, 2000.
^ Jump up to: a b Adams, Noël. "Rethinking the Sutton Hoo Shoulder Clasps and Armour." Intelligible Beauty: Recent Research on Byzantine ewellery. London: British Museum Research Publications 178 (2010): 87–116.
^ Jump up to: a b Richards, Julian D. "Anglo-Saxon symbolism." The Age of Sutton Hoo: The Seventh Century in North-West Europe (1992): 139.
^ Alexander, Caroline (November 2011). "Magical Mystery Treasure". National Geographic. 220 (5): 44. Archived from the original on 2016-12-25. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
^ "The Find". Staffordshire Hoard. Archived from the original on 2011-07-03. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
^ Leahy & Bland 2009, p. 9.
^ Mills, Allan A. "The Canterbury Pendant: A Saxon Seasonal-Hour Altitude Dial." PI Drinkwater:'Comments upon the Canterbury Pendant', and AJ Turner:'The Canterbury Dial', Bull BSS 95.2 (1995): 95.
^ Leslie Webster, Janet Backhouse, and Marion Archibald. The Making of England: Anglo-Saxon Art and Culture, AD 600–900. Univ of Toronto Pr, 1991.
^ Brown, Katherine L., and Robin JH Clark. "The Lindisfarne Gospels and two other 8th century Anglo-Saxon/Insular manuscripts: pigment identification by Raman microscopy." Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 35.1 (2004): 4–12.
^ Bruce-Mitford, Rupert Leo Scott. The art of the Codex Amiatinus. Parish of Jarrow, 1967.
^ Gameson, Richard. "THE COST OF THE CODEX-AMIATINUS." Notes and Queries 39.1 (1992): 2–9.
^ Meyvaert, Paul. "Bede, Cassiodorus, and the Codex Amiatinus." Speculum 71.04 (1996): 827–883.
^ Chazelle, Celia. "Ceolfrid's gift to St Peter: the first quire of the Codex Amiatinus and the evidence of its Roman destination." Early Medieval Europe 12.2 (2003): 129–157.
^ THOMAS, GABOR. "OVERVIEW: CRAFT PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY." The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (2011): 405.
^ Brown 1996, pp. 70, 73.
^ Reynolds, Andrew, and Webster, Leslie. "Early Medieval Art and Archaeology in the Northern World." (2013).
^ O'Sullivan, Deirdre. "Normanising the North: The Evidence of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Scandinavian Sculpture." Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 163–191.
^ Janet Backhouse, Derek Howard Turner, and Leslie Webster, eds. The Golden Age of Anglo-Saxon Art, 966–1066. British Museum Publications Limited, 1984.
^ Grape, Wolfgang. The Bayeux tapestry: monument to a Norman triumph. Prestel Pub, 1994.
^ Kemola, Juhani. 2000 "The Origins of the Northern Subject Rule – A Case of Early contact?"
^ The Celtic Roots of English, ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola and Heli Pitkänen, Studies in Languages, 37 (Joensuu: University of Joensuu, Faculty of Humanities, 2002).
^ Hildegard L. C. Von Tristram (ed.), The Celtic Englishes, Anglistische Forschungen 247, 286, 324, 3 vols (Heidelberg: Winter, 1997–2003).
^ Peter Schrijver, Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages, Routledge Studies in Linguistics, 13 (New York: Routledge, 2014), pp. 12–93.
^ Minkova, Donka (2009), Reviewed Work(s): A History of the English Language by Elly van Gelderen; A History of the English Language by Richard Hogg and David Denison; The Oxford History of English by Lynda Mugglestone
^ John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons," in Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter, De Gruyter (2018)
^ Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change," in Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English, Edinburgh University Press (2016)
^ Richard Coates, Reviewed Work: English and Celtic in Contact (2010)
^ Scott Shay (30 January 2008). The history of English: a linguistic introduction. Wardja Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-615-16817-3. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ Barber, Charles (2009). The English Language: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-521-67001-2.
^ Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change," in Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English (2016)
^ Schendl, Herbert (2012), Middle English: Language Contact
^ Fisher, Genevieve. "Kingdom and community in early Anglo-Saxon eastern England." Regional approaches to mortuary analysis. Springer US, 1995. 147–166.
^ Lynch, Joseph H. Christianizing kinship: ritual sponsorship in Anglo-Saxon England. Cornell University Press, 1998
^ Hough, C. "Wergild." (1999): 469–470.
^ Harrison, Mark. Anglo-Saxon Thegn AD 449–1066. Vol. 5. Osprey Publishing, 1993
^ Fell, Christine E., Cecily Clark, and Elizabeth Williams. Women in Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell, 1987
^ Simpson, A.W.B. 'The Laws of Ethelbert' in Arnold et al. (1981) 3.
^ Baker, J.H. An Introduction to English Legal History. (London: Butterworths, 1990) 3rd edition, ISBN 978-0-406-53101-8, Chapters 1–2.
^ Milsom, S.F.C. Historical Foundations of the Common Law. (London: Butterworths, 1981) 2nd edition, ISBN 978-0-406-62503-8 (limp), 1–23.
^ Robertson, Agnes Jane, ed. Anglo-Saxon Charters. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
^ Milsom, S.F.C. Historical Foundations of the Common Law. (London: Butterworths, 1981) 2nd edition, ISBN 978-0-406-62503-8 (limp), 1–23
^ Pollock, F. and Maitland, F.M. A History of English Law. Two volumes. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898 reprinted 1968) 2nd edition, ISBN 978-0-521-07061-4 and ISBN 978-0-521-09515-0, Volume I, Chapter 1.
^ Reynolds, Andrew. "Judicial culture and social complexity: a general model from Anglo-Saxon England." World Archaeology ahead-of-print (2014): 1–15.
^ Jump up to: a b Hyams, P. 'Trial by ordeal: the key to proof in the early common law' in Arnold, M.S. et al.. (eds) On the Laws and Customs of England: Essays in honor of S.E. Thorne. (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1981) ISBN 978-0-8078-1434-5, p. 90.
^ Leeson, Peter T. "Ordeals." Journal of Law and Economics 55.3 (2012): 691–714.
^ Higham, Nicholas, and Martin J. Ryan. The Anglo-Saxon World. Yale University Press, 2013.
^ Karkov, Catherine E. The Art of Anglo-Saxon England. Vol. 1. Boydell Press, 2011.
^ Fulk, R. D., and Christopher M. Cain. "Making Old English New: Anglo-Saxonism and the Cultural Work of Old English Literature." (2013).
^ Godden, Malcolm, and Michael Lapidge, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press, 1991; there is also the Paris Psalter (not the Paris Psalter), a metrical version of most of the Psalms, described by its most recent specialist as "a pedestrian and unimaginative piece of poetic translation. It is rarely read by students of Old English, and most Anglo-Saxonists make only passing reference to it. There is scarcely any literary criticism written on the text, although some work has been done on its vocabulary and metre", "Poetic language and the Paris Psalter: the decay of the Old English tradition", by M. S. Griffith, Anglo-Saxon England, Volume 20, December 1991, pp 167–186, doi:10.1017/S0263675100001800
^ "Early-Medieval-England.net : The Wanderer". www.anglo-saxons.net.
^ Bradley, S.A.J. Anglo-Saxon Poetry. New York: Everyman Paperbacks, 1995.
^ Alexander, Michael. The Earliest English Poems. 3rd rev. ed. New York:
Penguin Classics, 1992.
^ Anglo Saxon Poetry. Hachette UK, 2012.
^ Sweet, Henry. An Anglo-Saxon reader in prose and verse: with grammar, metre, notes and glossary. At the Clarendon Press, 1908.
^ Nugent, Ruth, and Howard Williams. "Sighted surfaces. Ocular Agency in early Anglo-Saxon cremation burials." Encountering images: materialities, perceptions, relations. Stockholm studies in archaeology 57 (2012): 187–208.
^ Härke, Heinrich. "Grave goods in early medieval burials: messages and meanings." Mortality ahead-of-print (2014): 1–21.
^ Pader, E.J. 1982. Symbolism, social relations and the interpretation of mortuary remains. Oxford. (B.A.R. S 130)
^ Guido and Welch. Indirect evidence for glass bead manufacture in early Anglo-Saxon England. In Price 2000 115–120.
^ Guido, M. & M. Welch 1999. The glass beads of Anglo-Saxon England c. AD 400–700: a preliminary visual classification of the more definitive and diagnostic types. Rochester: Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiqaries of London 56.
^ Brugmann, B. 2004. Glass beads from Anglo-Saxon graves: a study of the provenance and chronology of glass beads from early Anglo-Saxon graves, based on visual examination. Oxford: Oxbow
^ Owen-Crocker, Gale R. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell Press, 2004.
^ John Hines (1998) The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Edix Hill (Barrington A), Cambridgeshire. Council for British Archaeology.
^ Jump up to: a b North, Richard (1997-12-11). Heathen Gods in Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-55183-0.
^ Gannon, Anna (2003-04-24). The Iconography of Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage: Sixth to Eighth Centuries. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925465-1.
^ "Cambridge University study finds Anglo-Saxon kings were mostly vegetarian". BBC News. 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
^ Webb, Samuel (2022-04-21). "Anglo-Saxon kings 'were mostly vegetarian', before the Vikings new study claims". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
^ Polydore Vergil's sceptical reading of Geoffrey of Monmouth provoked at first a reaction of denial in England, "yet the seeds of doubt once sown" eventually replaced Geoffrey's romances with a new Renaissance historical approach, according to Hans Baron, "Fifteenth-century civilization and the Renaissance", in The New Cambridge Modern history, vol. 1 1957:56.
^ Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 by Patrick Brantlinger. Cornell University Press, 1990
^ Race and Empire in British Politics by Paul B. Rich. CUP Archive, 1990
^ Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism by Reginald Horsman. Harvard University Press, 1981. (pgs. 126, 173, 273)
^ Hills 2003, p. 35.
^ "Message from the Advisory Board". International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England. The Advisory Board of ISSEME. 19 September 2019.
^ "Showdown with the 'Anglosaksy'". Retrieved 2 September 2023.
^ "Kremlin again points to 'Anglo-Saxons' over Nord Stream pipeline blasts". Reuters. 2023-06-08. Retrieved 2023-09-02.
^ "What do the pro-Kremlin media mean by "Anglo-Saxons"?". Retrieved 2023-09-02.
^ "Kremlin media: Ukraine preparing to attack, not Russia". BBC News. 26 January 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2025.
Sources
Campbell, James, ed. (1982). The Anglo-Saxons. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-140-14395-9.
Giles, John Allen, ed. (1843a), "Ecclesiastical History, Books I, II and III", The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede, vol. II, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1843)
Giles, John Allen, ed. (1843b), "Ecclesiastical History, Books IV and V", The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede, vol. III, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1843)
Halsall, Guy (2013). Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-870084-5.
Higham, Nicholas J.; Ryan, Martin J. (2013), The Anglo-Saxon World, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-12534-4
Hills, Catherine (2003), Origins of the English, London: Duckworth, ISBN 978-0-7156-3191-1
Hough, Carole (2014). "An Ald Reht": Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-5917-2.
Leahy, Kevin; Bland, Roger (2009), The Staffordshire Hoard, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2328-8
Lanting; van der Plicht (2010). "De 14C-chronologie van de Nederlandse Pre- en Protohistorie. VI: Romeinse tijd en Merovingische periode, deel A: historische bronnen en chronologische schema's". Palaeohistoria. 51–52: 67. ISBN 978-90-77922-73-6.
Martin, Kevin M. (1971). "Some Textual Evidence Concerning the Continental Origins of the Invaders of Britain in the Fifth Century". Latomus. 30 (1): 83–104. JSTOR 41527856.
Nixon, C E V; Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1994). In praise of later Roman emperors: the Panegyrici Latini. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08326-1 – via Internet Archive.
Springer, Matthias (2004). Die Sachsen (in German). Kohlhammer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-17-023227-3.
Stenton, Frank (1971) [1943]. Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280139-5.
Yorke, Barbara (1990), Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England, B. A. Seaby, ISBN 978-0-415-16639-3
Further reading
General
Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A.; Crawford, Sally, eds. (2011), The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology., Oxford: OUP, ISBN 978-0-19-921214-9
Koch, John T. (2006), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0
Historical
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