We are still following in this series the changes that have occurred in the Western perception of ethics, in order to understand more deeply how Western ethics has reached its current state. In the previous article, we saw how proponents of the atheistic trend in rationalist philosophy succeeded in completely overturning religion and the church in the second half of the 17th century, led by "Descartes" and "Hobbes," especially Hobbes, who is considered the pioneer of anti-religious philosophy in Europe.

His ideas had a significant influence on several Western philosophers of his time, including "Berkeley" and "Hume" in Britain, and "Immanuel Kant" and "Karl Marx" in Germany. This atheistic trend was able to establish a new thought and a new ethical system that rejected religion entirely, contrary to what the philosophers of the Enlightenment period in the 18th and early 19th centuries had adhered to in terms of their rational and scientific orientation.

In this article, we focus on the philosopher Francis Bacon, the pioneer of the scientific revolution that began in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, to learn about his stance on religion and ethics and his influence during and beyond his time.

The English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered the pioneer of the scientific revolution, which is based on observation and experimentation, and one of the pioneers who alerted to the futility of Aristotelian logic based on syllogism. Bacon lived during the late Renaissance and early Enlightenment periods, and as a lawyer, a member of Parliament, and an advisor to the Queen, he wrote on several fields such as law, statecraft, religion, politics, society, and ethics.

Bacon launched an attack on medieval philosophy and the intellectual stagnation that hinders scientific progress. He believed in the necessity of completely liberating the mind from preconceived notions before seeking truths through observation and experimentation.

The Integration of Religion with Science

Bacon is considered one of the philosophers of the scientific school in the Enlightenment era who adopted a balanced stance between science and religion. Despite his explicit call for the separation of religion and science, he remained a believer that both are complementary to each other. In his book "The Book of God and the Book of Nature," he emphasized the importance of not conflating the Book of Nature (natural sciences) with the Book of God, as the latter represents the will of God while the former encompasses the works of God.

He considered the appreciation of the Book of Nature and providing scientific explanations for it as a form of Christian divine service. He believed that when humans are granted access to the Book of Nature, they should not merely read it but also discover the names by which things are called. By doing so, humans would not only regain their status as noble and powerful beings but also change the traditional perception of the Book of God compared to the Book of Nature.

Science, according to him, was a means to achieve a deeper understanding of both nature and religion. He was known for saying, "A little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion."

Bacon emphasized the necessity of separating religion and science, and he believed that the criticism of religious figures towards human interest in science and knowledge lacked rational basis. According to him, knowledge and science should not contradict religion. Since the Lord created the material world, this world has been a legitimate objective for human knowledge. Scientific knowledge, in Bacon's view, is a prerequisite for the expansion and development of civilization.

His book "New Atlantis" reveals his idealistic personality, his passionate love for science, his broad scientific imagination, and early ideas about scientific discoveries that emerged centuries later. In his book, Bacon talks about an imaginary utopian island whose inhabitants are believers, living in peace, and enjoying the achievements of their scientists' research in various agricultural and industrial fields, without allowing the outside world to contaminate them materially or morally. The people of the island are geniuses in science to the extent that they have created new plant species, possess thermal furnaces that rival the power of the sun, and have special springs they call "Fountains of Paradise" whose water prolongs life and cures all diseases.

Towards an Active Ethical Life.

Bacon placed ethics on an equal footing with science and religion. He saw the necessity of combining the advancement of science, religion, and ethics in a way that enhances each other. For him, ethical thinking is the means to enable humanity to overcome the shortcomings of earthly life. Humanity cannot progress through philosophy and science alone, from a narrow utilitarian perspective, including the relentless pursuit of profit and supporting the power or influence of specific groups. Rather, progress lies in striving to build a better world for humanity.

Ethical philosophy in Bacon's view is closely connected to ethical reflections on the relationship between acquired or innate virtues and their application in individual and collective life. Any application of virtue principles requires the cultivation of the mind, so that we may learn what is good and what should be pursued.

Bacon divides ethical knowledge into the system of goodness and the system of the culture of the mind. The former describes the nature of goodness, while the latter establishes rules for subduing human will, comprehending these rules, and applying them. He distinguishes different types of goodness, including the individual's duty towards the community, ethical self-discipline, and engagement in society.

Bacon's concept of individual moral character is closely related to adhering to acceptable behavior. Although people's actions may be limited, they are required to muster their psychological faculties and exercise control over their emotions when dealing with themselves and others. Humans need to apply self-discipline, exercise rational judgment, and restrain their emotions in order to live an active moral life within society.

Bacon issues a general warning to everyone to always keep in mind the true goals of science and knowledge, and to be aware that they should not pursue them for the sake of intellectual pleasure, disagreement, superiority over others, profit, fame, power, or any of these base motives. Rather, their pursuit should be for the betterment of life and improving the ways of living within it.

He does not present a fundamental theory of knowledge, but he emphasizes that the images existing in our minds from the beginning do not provide an objective picture of the real things. Therefore, we need to improve our minds, that is, free them from idols, before we begin to acquire knowledge.

For this reason, Bacon called for the liberation of minds from the idols that control them before embarking on the acquisition of knowledge. By idols, he refers to the preconceived mental notions that control the mind and lead it astray. He warns experimental scientists against commencing their studies before purifying their minds from these idols.

Bacon distinguishes between the ideas of the divine mind and the idols of the human mind. While the former reflects the true signs as they exist in nature, the latter is nothing more than unfounded imaginings and empty beliefs that have not undergone experimentation and inference. Bacon warns against these idols that control the human mind, and he classifies them cleverly and meticulously into four types as follows:

Idols of the tribe: These are erroneous concepts that arise due to human nature because the structure of human understanding is not well-regulated, much like a distorted mirror that causes distorted reflections of things and entities that fall upon it.
Idols of the cave: These are a collection of perceptions or beliefs that individuals cherish without possessing any evidence of their truth or validity. These perceptions and beliefs become ingrained in the mind through preconceived systems imposed on each individual, such as education, customs, passing or accidental experiences.
Idols of the marketplace: These are misconceptions derived from general human communication, as these concepts subtly infiltrate the mind and interact with it.
Idols of the theatre: The world is a stage, and its idols are the biases arising from traditional philosophical systems or those received by the mind, entering it without ever undergoing experimental examination or testing.

The influence of Bacon's philosophy extended beyond England and surpassed the impact of the philosopher Descartes in France. Voltaire presented Bacon to the French audience as the father of the scientific method, and in the 19th century, he became renowned as the father of experimental philosophy.

The English historian William Hepworth Dixon (1821-1879) said, "Bacon's influence on the modern world is so great that every man who rides a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plow, sits in a comfortable chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner, enjoys a beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgery owes him something."

The third President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), considered Bacon, along with Locke and Newton, as the three greatest men who ever lived without exception. They laid the foundations for the superstructure on which the physical and moral sciences were built.

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sophronia (62) 2 years ago

Bacon also made significant contributions to various fields, including philosophy, law, and education. He coined the term "natural philosophy" to describe the search for knowledge and explanation about the natural world through the scientific method. He also proposed many new ideas related to education, including the development of formal education programs and the cultivation of independent thinking skills among students.

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A Philosophical Journey (9): Ethics According to the Pioneer of the Scientific Revolution

The Integration of Religion with Science

Towards an Active Ethical Life.

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