Part 3/9:
After Waterloo, a conservative order reinstated pre-Napoleonic states under strict control, largely led by Austria through Klemens von Metternich. This approach stoked dissatisfaction among ordinary Italians who were frustrated by the loss of liberties gained during the French period. The rebirth of old Italian states—like the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Papal States—fueled secret societies and open revolts, as various factions sought to define a vision for Italy’s future. The potential paths for unity diverged into revolutionary republics, a Catholic confederation, gradual liberal reform, or military consolidation under Piedmont-Sardinia—none of which gained sufficient traction initially.