Part 14/19:
In Eastern Europe, Jews found refuge and flourished temporarily as autonomous communities in Poland, Lithuania, and Russia—some of the most democratic and tolerant polities of their time. They became vital intermediaries—tax collectors, merchants, financiers—concentrated in cities like Warsaw, Kraków, and later, Kiev.
However, these communities faced increasing oppression from rise of nationalism in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which scapegoated Jews during periods of social unrest, overpopulation, and war. Pogroms, forced expulsions, and state-sponsored discrimination led many Jews to flee or emigrate, particularly to America.