Astaxanthin (Red)
Hydrogen Electron Donor
Ellagitannin
Pomegranate (Red)
Punicalagin
Pomegranate (Red)
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Vitamin C:
Hydroxyl Group
Hydrogen Donor
Demethylation
CH3:
Methyl Group (Methane)
Methyl Doner
Methylation
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Powerful Antioxidants
Astaxanthin
Anthocyanin
Hydroxytyrosol
Athocyanins are the pigments that give the fruit its red color, acting as potent antioxidants
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Carotenoid
Oil-Soluble
Examples: Beta-carotene, lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin
Dietary sources: Yellow and orange fruits and vegetables (carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkins), leafy greens
Polyphenol
Water-Soluble
Examples: Anthocyanins, catechins, flavonoids, tannins
Dietary sources: Fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, red wine, chocolate, and dry legumes
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Glutathione is regenerated from its oxidized form (GSSG) by the enzyme glutathione reductase, which uses NADPH as a hydrogen and electron donor.
The ascorbate-glutathione cycle regenerates oxidized glutathione (GSSG) back to its reduced form (GSH) using the enzyme glutathione reductase (GR) and the reducing power of (NADPH). This cycle works in tandem with ascorbate (vitamin C) to detoxify harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydrogen peroxide.
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Citric Acid Krebs Cycle
Glutamate–Glutamine Cycle
Glutathione-Ascorbate Cycle
SAM Cycle
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Antioxidants act as hydrogen and electron donors to neutralize harmful free radicals by donating an electron, a hydrogen atom, or both. This donation breaks the chain reaction of damage free radicals can cause.
Mechanisms of action
Hydrogen Atom Transfer (HAT):
The antioxidant donates a hydrogen atom (a proton and an electron together) to the free radical, neutralizing it. This is a direct and efficient process.
Single Electron Transfer (SET):
The antioxidant donates a single electron to the free radical, creating a radical cation. This is often followed by the donation of a proton to complete the neutralization.
Sequential Proton Loss Electron Transfer (SPLET):
The antioxidant first loses a proton, forming an anion. This anion then donates an electron to the free radical to complete the neutralization.
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Sodium bicarbonate can react with hydrogen peroxide in chemical reactions, and in biological contexts, sodium bicarbonate can suppress the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxidation.
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Carotenoid
Beta-Carotene
Lycopene
Hydroxytyrosol
Carotenoids are highly sensitive to oxygen, light, and heat, and they degrade easily in emulsions, which limits their use in the food industry. Polyphenols prevent this degradation through their strong antioxidant properties.
polyphenols act as powerful antioxidants that interact with carotenoids and proteins to significantly improve the carotenoids' stability, bioavailability, and overall shelf life.
A higher concentration of polyphenols can increase the stability and absorption of carotenoids during digestion and greater bioavailability.
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Pomegranate:
Punicalagin
Ellagitannin
Astaxanthin
Anthocyanin
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Ellagic acid
Alkaline conditions affect ring stability: The two lactone rings of ellagic acid are stable in acidic conditions but can open and degrade under alkaline conditions.
Phenolic oxidation drives antioxidant activity: Like HHDP, the four phenolic hydroxyl groups on ellagic acid are susceptible to oxidation. This susceptibility is actually key to ellagic acid's function as a potent antioxidant, as it can donate electrons to neutralize free radicals. This process is influenced by pH and the presence of metal ions.
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https://www.healthline.com/health/carotenoids#typesof-carotenoids
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Bicarbonates, hydrogen peroxide and malaria.
https://www.malariaworld.org/blogs/bicarbonates-hydrogen-peroxide-and-malaria
pH alteration: Sodium bicarbonate is a base, and its addition increases the pH of a solution, which changes the chemical environment for polyphenols.
Degradation: High concentrations of sodium bicarbonate can cause the rapid degradation of polyphenols, which is sometimes accompanied by the production of hydrogen peroxide.
To kill Plasmodium we need pro-oxidants like artemisinin, chloroquine, ROS, hydrogen peroxide and not anti-oxidants like vitamins or flavonoids.
Hydrogen peroxide is not used therapeutically to treat malaria, but it is a critical component in the body's defense against the malaria parasite, Plasmodium. The parasite is highly susceptible to oxidative stress, and many antimalarial drugs exploit this vulnerability.
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Anti- and pro-oxidant properties of polyphenols and their role in modulating glutathione synthesis, activity and cellular redox potential: Potential synergies for disease management
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667137924000067
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Parasite susceptibility
Oxidative damage: Plasmodium parasites are highly sensitive to oxidative stress. Exposure to 𝐻2𝑂2 can cause a loss of critical cellular functions, such as pH control, and significantly inhibit parasite growth.
Vulnerability in G6PD deficiency: Parasites infecting red blood cells with a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency are more vulnerable to 𝐻2𝑂2 because these cells have lower antioxidant defenses. This is one reason why G6PD deficiency is protective against severe malaria.
Parasite countermeasures and drug mechanisms Antioxidant defense:
The Plasmodium parasite has its own antioxidant systems to counter the oxidative stress from the host and its own metabolism. These include enzymes like peroxiredoxins, which detoxify Hydrogen Peroxide.
Drug action: Many current antimalarial drugs exploit the parasite's vulnerability to oxidative stress.
Artemisinins: This class of antimalarials, used in combination therapies, works by generating free radicals that cause oxidative damage to the parasite's proteins and lipids. Some parasite resistance is linked to an enhanced ability to manage this oxidative stress.
Quinolines: Drugs like chloroquine inhibit the detoxification of free heme within the parasite, increasing the oxidative stress burden.
Glutathione binds to mycotoxins through a strong sulfur bond. This process, called conjugation, makes the fat-soluble toxins water-soluble so they can be excreted through the bile and urine.
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Glutamine, GABA, and glutamate are all involved in the function of the retina and visual cortex, impacting eyesight. Glutamine is essential for photoreceptor health, while glutamate and GABA are neurotransmitters crucial for processing visual information and maintaining retinal cell health. In conditions like glaucoma, reduced levels of these neurotransmitters are linked to degraded visual function.